Some intellectuals and ordinary people brought their families to MuRongwei and were willing to be under his control. Mu Rongwei set up some prefectures to organize the newcomers.
You can imagine the numbers of displaced peoples. Many Han peoples who migrated to other ethnic regions intermarried with the local peoples, and in order to adapt to the local way of life and natural environment, also changed their lifestyles, customs and habits. After several generations, they had integrated with the local peoples. These were the descendants of the Han and Wei garrisons, as well as Jin Dynasty peoples, who had fled to the area. It was said in the Biography of Gaochang from the Book of Wei.
At that time, the influence of the Northern tribes on the people of the Gaochang was already very deep. The tradition and customs were similar to the Hua Xia. The descendants of local Han peoples integrated with the Uyghurs.
At the same time, speakers of Karasahr-Kucha language Tocharian language , Khotan language, and other groups using Indo-European languages and living in the oases of the southern Tianshan Mountains, were also integrated with the Uyghurs. Another example: during the Warring States period, thousands of peasants led by Zhuang Chu of the Chu Kingdom migrated to the Dianchi, Yunnan region, in which he called himself the King of Dian. However, most of the Han who moved to Yunnan before the Ming Dynasty integrated with the local peoples.
The Han who moved to the Erhai Lake of the Dali region became an important part of the Bai ethnicity. In the past, we have not sufficiently studied the history of interpenetration and integration of different ethnicities, and we especially havenot paid enough serious attention to the integration of the Han with other ethnic groups.
As a result, it is very easy to get the biased impression that the Han ethnicity is more complexthan other ethnicities. In fact, people from every ethnicity are constantly being absorbed by other groups, while at the same time their ethnic group is absorbing people from other ethnicities. There are some who think that ethnic groups with more highly developed economies and cultures will inevitably integrate groups with lower economic and cultural development. But this is a biased view, because history has demonstrated that the economically and culturally advanced Han were integrated into surrounding ethnic groups with lower levels of development.
The process of inter-ethnic penetration and integration should be analyzed based on concrete evidence. I included this section in order to point out that when considering the formation and development of the Han ethnicity through the process of absorbing a large number of other ethnic groups, we should not forget that the Han never stopped exporting new blood to other ethnic groups. As early as the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods, the Huaxia predecessors of the Han had already extended their influence in the East to the sea, South to the mid- and lower-Yangtze River, and West to the Loess Plateau.
This is illustrated by the split between the Northern and Southern Huns, where the Northern Huns were pushed out, and the Southern Huns incorporated. The Northern Huns pressed out to the large grasslands in Central Asia and Eastern Europe, expanding the territory of the Chinese nation. Not many other ethnic groups were able to do so.
But the vast majority of non-Han who did not integrate, and only had the option to migrate to regions where the Han did not want to live, primarily the un-arable land in the grasslands and mountainous regions. There are some that have persisted into the present, and have retained their cultural characteristics within the unified Chinese nation, contributing to the multi-ethnic make up of the nation.
If one wanted to conduct a full historical review of this process, it could be traced back to the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors of the legendary era. The Yellow Emperor, considered by the Han to be their ancestor, once declared war against the Yan Emperor and Chiyou on the north bank of the Yellow River. This is of course speculation, but after the time of Chiyou, there was a section that was left outside of the Han ethnicity that may support this.
As described above, from the archeological materials, we know that in the Neolithic era, the East and West sides of both mid- and lower-reaches ofthe Yangtze and Yellow Rivers were different cultural areas. Beginning with the Qingliangang-Dawenkou culture — BCE of the south-central plains of Shandong, there was a history of almost three thousand years of a well-developed agricultural culture, which people have connected with the Eastern Yi of the history books.
Undoubtedly, many different clans were incorporated within the Eastern Yi. The Eastern Yi were the ancestors of the Shang Dynasty, and when they were defeated by the Zhou people from the west who were the successors to the Qiang , one section integrated with the Huaxia group along with the Zhou people, and another section were expelled or fled.
It is this section that, as discussed above, may have crossed the sea or land to the Korean peninsula and islands of Japan, but most of them went south. This physical measurement profile is also found in the Dayaoshan Yao people of Guangxi.
If the analysis of this data is credible, it is easy to put forward the idea of a shared history among the peoples from these three areas. Because my phenotypic analysis research work has been interrupted for so long, and materials have been lost, the above points can only be made from memory. My inference was supported by one of my teachers, Professor Pan Guangdan.
According to written historical data and field observation in the Fanmin area of Fujian, he put forward the argument that I will describe briefly from memory as follows:. We can discern a path of migration from an examination of the place and ethnic group names Xu, Shu, Fan, etc.
It is very possible that during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the Eastern Yihad a clan in the southwest with the name Xulived between the Yellow River and the Huai River, and they left a legacy that persists today with the place-name Xuzhou. In recent years, a series of Xu State bronze artifacts dating back to the mid Spring and Autumn period have been unearthed in the northwest of Jiangsu.
This is likely not accidental, but perhaps is related to the migration of the Xu people. Literature from this period discusses residents of this area known as Shu. Pan thinks that Fan and Xu are homonyms, and the Xu and Shu peoples may have been ancestors of the Fan peoples. He also points to the legend of Panhu in Yao Fan, which he links to the records of the XuyanKing, and he thinks that the story of traversing the mountains has a historical basis, that was later turned into myth.
The group of people who later migrated to the Yangtze River basin, and entered the Nanling Mountains, may be the modern-day Yao peoples. The group of people who migrated East from the Nanling Mountains, and integrated with the Han groups in the mountainous regions of Jiangxi, Fujian, and Zhejiang, may be the modern-day Fan peoples. Another group who settled in the Dongting Lake area, and later migrated to the mountainous regions of Jiangxi and Guizhou may be the modern-day Miao peoples.
Pan has in this way connected the Miao and the Yao ethnicities, because their languages belong to the same system, called the Miao-Yao language family. This indicates they maybe differentiated out of the same source. If the Eastern Yiin the west underwent two thousand years of migration, and still left some descendants into the present, retaining some of their ethnic characteristics and becoming Yao, Miao, and Fan, then what happened to the Eastern Yi in the east?
This section can clearly be linked from the Qingliangang culture in the North of the Yangtze River, to the Hemudu-Liangzhu culture of the mid- and lower-Yangtze regions. This was also the region in which the Wu and Yue peoples were active during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. During the Three Kingdoms period, the biggest headache for the ruler of the region was often these Yue people scattered throughout the mountains. This cannot help but remind me that the series of Neolithic cultures are the foundations of the Wu and Yue culture.
Archeological data from southern Zhejiang province down to the coast of Guangdong is incomplete. However, the discovery of the Shixia culture in Guangdong made it possible for archeologists to come to the conclusionthat, along with the indigenous cultures of the Ganjiang River basin, mid- and lower-Yangtze River, and even as far as the coastal area of Shandong, had continuous direct and indirect interaction. Moreover, later in time, farther and wider the connections were made, such that they determined that this entire coastal area had always been closely connected ibid.
These clues lead me to believe that this was not just the result of intercourse, but rather that there must be some shared origins. In other words, from Shandong to Guangdong, ancient Yue or Cantonese peoples must have been active along the entire coastline. All of these groups were called Yue peoples, so we can consider them to belong within same system of people.
Many ethnologists have linked the ancient Yue people to the Zhuang and Dong ethnic groups that are now scattered in the southwestern provinces and Southeast Asia, for example, the Zhuang of Guangxi, the Buyi, Dong, Shuiof Wuzhou, and the Dai of Yunnan. If this historical connection is credible, then they can be linked to the history of all of the coastal Yue peoples. Now the coastal Yue peoples have already been integrated into the Han ethnicity, though the Yue system of people still maintains a small corner in the southwest.
They live mainly in the basins within the mountains and engage in agriculture, while the Miao, Yao, and other ethnic minorities live within the mountains. Their distribution is quite broad, and populations are large, so we do not have concrete data.
This is the situation in the lower-Yangtze River, coastal regions, and immediately outside the southwest border. Let us now consider the situation in the mid-Yangtze River region. The Neolithic Daxi-Qujialing-Qinglongquan cultures of the Jianghan Plains, from the perspective of territory, all became part of the Chu culture. The Chu culture of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods maintained a strong local character.
In other words, along with the Huaxia of the Central Plains, they were part of the kaleidoscope of the unified multi-ethnic nation. The Chu were a society with highly developed agriculture and culture. However, after the Qin overthrew the Chu, conflicts between the Chu and the Han persisted. Surrounded on four sides and with no hope of seeing his elders in the south of the Yangtze River, Xiang Yu committed suicide. The process of merging of the Chu and the Han was also very long.
However, during the spread of Han culture crossing into Guangdong during the Han Dynasty, the rule of the Nanyue King was still strong.
If the region south of the Nanling Mountains was to become a Han settlement-dominated region, they would still need to wait nearly a thousand more years. We can see the historical stratification of this area from the structure of the peoples of Hainan Island. The earliest residents of the island, the Li peoples, had a language that was a self-contained branch in the Zhuang-Dong language family, indicating that ithad branched off early from the other groups within this language family.
They spoke the same language as the Zhuang peoples, and in the present consider themselves Han. Later on in the Ming Dynasty, another Yao-speaking group called the Miao migrated in, and continued to call themselves Miao up into the present.
In line with my earlier speculations, among the Yao peoples they are the group that moved the farthest south. After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, many Han peoples moved in, primarily in the regions within the enclosed sea. Let us return to the western part of the Chinese territory, where ethnic minorities still reside to this day, including the Loess Plateau, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, together with Xinjiang to the north and south of the Tianshan Mountains.
There is less archeological materials available for this vast area than for the Central Plains and coastal regions, so its ancient history is less clear. Together with the remains of the Paleolithic and Neolithic sites mentioned above, we can conclude that these areas have been inhabited by humanoids since very early on. From the historical records in literature, the early peoples living in the west of Central Plains were called the Rong.
The area closer to the Central Plains, i. Qiang may be the name that the Central Plains residents called the western nomads. There were also many different names among these hundredsof tribes, that were jointly referred to the Qiang and Di in ancient records. Whether or not they share the same origin is difficult to determine, perhaps their languages belong to the same family. There are written languages ofthe Qiang in the Shang Dynasty oracles, who at the time were active in the modern-day Gansu and Shaanxi area.
The Qiang and Zhou tribes had kinship relationships, so the Zhou people considered themselves descendants of Jiang Yuan. In the Zhou Dynasty, the Qiang peoples occupied an important position in the ruling group, and later became an important part of the Chinese nation.
From the perspective of history, as a group that maintained an ethnic identity, the Qiang peoples and the Central Plains always maintained close relations, and were a powerful group among the Yi-Xia in the Gansu and Shaanxi regions. From to AD, they established the Western Xia Kingdom, which at its zenith included Ningxia, northern Shaanxi and parts of Gansu, Qinghai, and Inner Mongolia, and became one of the three local regimes, including the Liao and Jin kingdoms, which stood against the Song Dynasty.
They were engaged in both agriculture and animal husbandry, and had their own writing system similar to the Han. Since the defeat of the Western Xia regime by the Mongols, the whereabouts of the Qiang peoples do not often appear in Chinese historical data.
It is possible that the majority integrated with local Han peoples and other ethnic groups. In the present, there are about one million people who self-identify as Qiang. In the census, there were only about , individuals, mainly living in northern Sichuan where there is a Qiang autonomous prefecture.
The role played by the Qiang peoples in the formation of the Chinese nation seems to be the opposite of that of the Han. The Han were mainly on the receiving end, and grew their population, while the Qiang mainly supplied, and contributed to the strength of other ethnic groups. Many ethnic groups, including the Han, were recipient of Qiang blood. Let me begin from the Tibetans in the west. According to Han-language historical records, during the Han Dynasties the Tibetans belonged to the western Qiang people.
The Fa Qiang were one of many tribes on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau at the time; they had significant intercourse with the Gansu Qiang tribe. The Tibetan language family has three language branches, namely, Tibetan, Garong, and Monba. Some linguists include the Qiang, Pumi, and Lhoba languages within the Tibetan language family, and some classify the Garong language as a branch in the Wu language family. One has said that the Western Xia language is in reality part of the JiaRong language, namely the Qiang language.
This demonstrates that there is a close relationship between the Tibetan language and the Qiang language. The Jiarong language is mainly distributed in the Aba Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province, and those who speak Garong are considered to be Tibetan ethnicity. The Tibetan language itself is divided into three very distinct dialects: the Weizang dialect is distributed in most parts of the Tibetan Autonomous Region; the Kham dialect is mainly distributed in such Tibetan autonomous prefectures as Ganzi of Sichuan, Diqing of Yunnan,Yushu of Qinghai; and the Amdo dialect is distributed in some autonomous prefecturesin southernGansu and Qinghai.
The complexity of the Tibetan language reflects the diversity within the Tibetan ethnic group. Even if the Qiang were not the main source of the Tibetan peoples, the important role played by the Qiang in the process of Tibetan formation is substantial.
Throughout history, the Tibetans were a very strong ethnic group. They not only unified the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, but also the Pamir Plateau in the north, southern Xinjiang, in the east to the Tang Dynasty capital in Chang-an and the Chengdu Basin in Sichuan, and in the south to northern Yunnan and what was then the Nanzhao Kingdom. In their zenith, all of the local groups were brought under their control.
These people were called the Tibetans too. Today, in the area around Aba, there is a group called Baima Tibetans; however, they do not speak a Tibetan language and do not believe in Lamaism. In the Liujiang River corridor, there have also been discovered a group of Tibetan peoples who speak Tibetan outside, but at home speak a different language. These are obvious examples of mixing together but not being integrated.
If languages can give us some clues about historical relationships, the close relationship between the Han and Tibetan languages also supports the hypothesis that the Qiang people mentioned above are the link between the Han and Tibetans. From this clue we can take another step forward, and look at the close relations between the Tibetan and Yi languages, which has ledmany scholars to believe that the source of the Yi people was also the Qiang.
In , the Yi ethnicity counted5. If one includes all of the groups speaking Yi family languages, including Hani, Naxi, Lisu, Lahu, Keno, and other groups, that number rises to 7. Among the ethnic minorities, they are second only to the Zhuang, and are more numerous than the Hui. In the valleys of the Hengduan Mountains in which the Yi live exist innumerable small areas blocked by the mountains, within which traffic is inconvenient.
The many small groups, which were in fact all members of the same ethnic group, each with their own names, were regarded by others as of a different ethnic unit. In the present, the peoples speaking the Yi language are now considered to belong to five ethnic groups with different names. When the Mongolian army conquered the Southern Song Dynasty and created Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou, most of the different groups within the Yi language family banded together in resistance under the same name: the Luo Luo.
This name continued to be used until the liberation; however, because it came to be used as a form of discrimination and disgrace, it was abolished in favor of the use of the name Yi. Over time, the Yi ethnicity has long held regional power in the area of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.
During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the central government utilized local ministers of Yi ethnicity, as a means of indirect rule. The Qing Dynasty shifted their policy to the bureaucratization of native officers and implemented direct rule, some of the more inconvenient areas for travel became more accessible, resulting in the large in-migration of Han migrants.
The social development of the Yi was very uneven. Even on the eve of liberation, in towns and cities the interaction between those who considered themselves the upper-echelons of Yi society and the Han appeared as though there were no differences, and they also held much political and economic power.
From an objective point of view, there are actually six ethnic groups on the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau. First, along the south and southwest borders are mainly groups within the Zhuang-Dong linguistic family, primarily the Dai. It is difficult to say whether these groups are indigenous to the region, or have migrated to this mountainous area more recently from the eastern coastal areas. Second, are the groups originating from the north within the Yi linguistic family.
The third is the long-term indigenous groups in the region. According to archeological data, this is the birthplace of humanity, so it is difficult to believe that there are no remaining descendants. However, according to existing knowledge, we still cannot clearly determine their relationship with contemporary groups.
Most have likely been eliminated, or assimilated with foreign migrants. Some think that the modern-day Gelao and Mulao scattered around Guizhou, Guanxi area, formerly referred to as the descendants of the Liao, may have been early residents of this region. The fourth is the result of early migration during the Spring and Autumn and Warring State periods from the Central Plains. The earliest that can been seen in history is the army of Zhuang Qiao of the Chu Kingdom, entering the Dianchi area.
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This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. The Han Chinese are the largest ethnic group in the world and have a current population of a staggering 1. According to historical documents, the generally accepted view is that the Han Chinese can trace their origins to the Huaxia ethnic group, which formed during the Shang and Zhou dynasties 21st—8th centuries BC in the Central Plain region of China Fig 1 [ 2 ].
Because of their advanced agriculture and technology, this group migrated northward into regions inhabited by many ancient northern ethnic groups that were most likely Altaic in origin [ 4 ].
In addition, they migrated south into regions originally inhabited by ancient southern ethnic groups, including those speaking the Daic, Austro-Asiatic, and Hmong-Mien languages [ 3 ]. Historically, the Han Chinese dispersed across China, becoming the largest of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups.
HB is marked by a yellow circle, and the Central Plain region is indicated by a cyan ellipse. XN population is marked by a black circle, and XB populations are marked by two grey circles.
The red area marked on the map represents the location of the southern Han, and the green area marked in China represents the location of the northern Han.
The human remains and sacrificial vessels in the two photos in the lower right corner were both excavated from the Hengbei site. Genetic studies can substantially improve our ability to understand the origins of human populations, including where and when they migrated [ 5 — 8 ].
To date, studies of classic genetic markers and microsatellites have revealed that the Han Chinese can be divided into two distinct groups: the northern Han Chinese NH and the southern Han Chinese SH [ 9 , 10 ].
Based on present-day genetic data from NH, SH, and southern minorities, the genetic history of the SH group has been well studied. The consensus is that the Han Chinese migrated south and contributed greatly to the paternal gene pool of the SH, whereas the Han Chinese and ancient southern ethnic groups both contributed almost equally to the SH maternal gene pool [ 11 ]. However, the genetic history of the NH is still obscure. Currently, NH populations inhabit much of northern China, including the Central Plain and many outer regions that were inhabited by ancient northern ethnic groups Fig 1.
The Han Chinese or their ancestors who migrated northward from the Central Plain might have mixed with ancient northern ethnic groups or culturally assimilated the native population. This scenario would indicate that the Han Chinese living in different areas should have genetic profiles that differ from each other.
However, genetic analyses have shown that there are no significant differences among the northern Han Chinese populations [ 12 ], which has led to conflicting arguments on whether the genetic structure of the NH is the result of an earlier ethnogenesis or, instead, results from a combination of population admixture and continuous migration of the Han Chinese.
The addition of ancient DNA analysis on ancient Han Chinese samples provides increased information that can be used to reconstruct recent human evolutionary events in ancient China [ 13 ]. Until now, only a few genetic studies have investigated the ancient Han Chinese or their ancestors. These studies have been restricted by small sample sizes [ 14 , 15 ], high levels of kinship among samples [ 16 ], and short fragments of mitochondrial DNA mtDNA [ 17 , 18 ] and thus provide limited insights into the genetic history of the Han Chinese.
Recently, a large number of graves were excavated at a necropolis called Hengbei located in the southern part of Shanxi Province, China, on the Central Plain Fig 1 , that dates back to approximately 3, years ago Zhou dynasty [ 19 ], a key transitional period for the rise of the Han Chinese.
In a previous study investigating when haplogroup Q1a1 entered the genetic pool of the Han Chinese, we analyzed Y chromosome single nucleotide polymorphisms SNPs from human remains excavated from the Hengbei HB site and identified haplogroups for 27 samples[ 20 ]. In the present study, we attempted to extract DNA from 89 human remains. Using a combination of Y chromosome SNPs and mtDNA genetic data, we uncover aspects of the genetic structure of the ancient people from the Central Plain region and begin to determine the genetic legacy of the northern Han Chinese in both the maternal and paternal lineages.
This site was excavated by the Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology from to After appropriate recording, we selected 89 well-preserved human remains from 56 graves some graves yielded several human sacrifices.
A total of human teeth were packed in cardboard boxes and sent to the ancient DNA laboratory of Jilin University, Changchun City, China, where they were stored in a dry and cool environment. Other skeletal samples were sent to the Research Center for Chinese Frontier Archaeology of Jilin University for anthropological analyses.
The specimen numbers and the archaeological and anthropological data from the ancient individuals are shown in S1 Table. The authors were not involved in the sample collection, and all of the samples were excavated and provided to the authors by the Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology from to All of the samples were de-identified, and the specimen numbers are listed in S1 Table.
All necessary permits were obtained for the described study, which complied with all relevant regulations. All ancient DNA samples were handled with care at each step, and measures were taken to avoid contamination and ensure authenticity based on the following criteria: 1 Pre- and post-PCR analyses were conducted in two isolated laboratories, located in two separated buildings nearly one kilometer apart. The pre-PCR laboratory is one of the only molecular biology laboratories in the building.
The laboratory is under positive air pressure, and the rooms for sample cleaning, DNA extraction, and PCR preparation are physically separated. Full-body protective clothing, facemasks, and gloves were used, and routine sterilization with different treatments DNAse away, bleach, and ultraviolet light irradiation was adopted.
At least two teeth were collected from each individual, and each was extracted independently. Two amplifications of each extraction were carried out on different teeth for each individual. In the extraction and amplification process, blank controls were applied for detecting contamination one extraction blank for every five ancient samples and one PCR blank for every four reactions. The protocols used were previously published [ 21 ]. Haplotypes were identified by comparing the variable nucleotide positions to the revised Cambridge reference sequence CRS [ 22 ].
Haplogroups M, C, D, D4, F, G, M7, M9, and N9a were examined directly using the amplified product-length polymorphisms APLP method [ 25 , 26 ] by detecting mutations at positions , , , , , , , , and , respectively.
Haplogroups A, D5, M8, M10, R, and Z were identified by sequencing to detect mutations at positions , , , , , and , respectively.
All primers are listed in S2 Table. Only PCA was used in the Y chromosome analysis. For the statistical analyses, the genetic data for current populations from mainland China were retrieved from published reports S3 and S4 Tables.
Han Chinese populations were divided into NH [ 11 , 23 , 27 — 30 ] and SH groups [ 11 , 23 , 24 , 27 , 30 ], and separated by the previously published prominent genetic boundary [ 12 ]. Other present-day populations were also integrated into the two population groups.
These populations include the northern Minorities NM and the southern Minorities SM , divided according to their language classification and geographic distribution. In short, Altaic populations [ 29 , 31 — 36 ] are attributed to belong to the NM, whereas the Tibeto-Burman [ 27 , 29 — 33 , 37 — 40 ], Hmong-Mien [ 29 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 38 , 41 ], Daic [ 29 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 ], and Austro-Asiatic populations [ 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 ] were classed as belonging to the SM.
History document showed that many northern ethnic populations had several conflicts with the Han Chinese on the northern boundary of the Central Plain region, and a part of them merged gradually into the Han Chinese from ancient to modern times[ 3 ].
The XB data included two ancient populations, with one excavated from a 1,year-old Lamadong site in the north of China [ 45 ], and the other excavated from a 1,year-old Qilang mountain site in the north of China [ 46 ] Fig 1. The maternal genetic distances between the HB and population retrieved in this study were calculated.
The maternal genetic distances between different populations were investigated using F ST comparisons with Arlequin 3. This calculation was performed twice. Second, the genetic distances between the HB and each present-day population including 19 Han Chinese and 40 Chinese minorities were then calculated.
To the right is a picture of Qiang people in Southwest China. What do you think these people are doing? Courtyard scene in Sichuan province source. To the left is a picture showing a Yi woman from Southwest China. What might be the purpose of the intricate design on her jacket? Yi woman in her costume,. Sichuan province source. Map of China's current language groups source. A market in Shandong , early s source.
Han Chinese are also marked by further linguistic diversity, in that the spoken forms of their different dialects vary as widely as the languages of Europe. Over the centuries many ethnic groups have been absorbed into the Han majority, especially in the south and west. Sichuan has always had many ethnic groups, but today the large majority are Han Chinese.
I ndividuals in a Sichuan courtyard, source. Seesaw game source. Mongol wrestlers source.
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